COMMON COLD

What is the common cold, and what causes it?

The common cold is a self-limited contagious illness that can be caused by a number of different types of viruses. The common cold is medically referred to as a viral upper respiratory tract infection. Symptoms of the common cold may include cough, sore throat, nasal congestion, runny nose, and sneezing. More than 200 different types of viruses are known to cause the common cold, with rhinovirus causing approximately 30%-35% of all adult colds. Other commonly implicated viruses include coronavirus, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and parainfluenza virus. Because so many different viruses can cause a cold and because new cold viruses constantly develop, the body never builds up resistance against all of them. For this reason, colds are a frequent and recurring problem. In fact, children in preschool and elementary school can have six to 12 colds per year while adolescents and adults typically have two to four colds per year. The common cold occurs most frequently during the fall and winter months.
The common cold is the most frequently occurring illness in the world, and it is a leading cause of doctor visits and missed days from school and work. It is estimated that individuals in the United States suffer 1 billion colds per year, with approximately 22 million days of school absences recorded annually.

How is the common cold transmitted?

The common cold is spread either by direct contact with infected secretions from contaminated surfaces or by inhaling the airborne virus after individuals sneeze or cough. Person-to-person transmission often occurs when an individual who has a cold blows or touches their nose and then touches someone or something else. A healthy individual who then makes direct contact with these secretions can subsequently become infected, often after their contaminated hands make contact with their own eyes or nose. A cold virus can live on objects such as pens, books, telephones, computer keyboards, and coffee cups for several hours and can thus be acquired from contact with these objects.

What are the symptoms and signs of the common cold in adults, children, and infants?

The symptoms of the common cold typically begin two to three days after acquiring the infection (incubation period). Symptoms and signs of the common cold vary depending on the virus responsible for the infection and may include the following

• nasal stuffiness or drainage,

• sore or scratchy throat,

• sneezing,

• hoarseness,

• cough,

• watery eyes,

• low-grade fever,

• headache,

• body aches, and

• fatigue.

The signs and symptoms of the common cold in infants and children are similar to those seen in adults. The cold may begin with a runny nose with clear nasal discharge, which later may become yellowish or greenish in color. Infants and children may also become more fussy and have decreased appetite.
The symptoms of the common cold will typically last anywhere from four to 14 days, with most individuals improving in one week.

Does it have anything to do with exposure to cold weather?

Though the common cold usually occurs in the fall and winter months, the cold weather itself does not cause the common cold. Rather, it is thought that during cold-weather months people spend more time indoors in close proximity to each other, thus facilitating the spread of the virus. For this same reason, children in day care and school are particularly prone to acquiring the common cold.

How is the common cold diagnosed?

Your physician or health-care practitioner will generally diagnose the common cold based on the description of your symptoms and the findings on your physical exam. Laboratory testing and imaging studies are generally not necessary unless there are concerns about another underlying medical condition or potential complications.

What is the treatment for the common cold? Are there any home remedies for the common cold?

There is no cure for the common cold. The common cold is a self-limited illness that will resolve spontaneously with time. Home remedies and treatments are directed at alleviating the symptoms associated with the common cold while the body fights off the infection.
Home treatment for the common cold includes getting rest and drinking plenty of fluids. In older children and adults, over-the-counter medications such as throat lozenges, throat sprays, cough drops, and cough syrups may help relieve symptoms, though they will not prevent or shorten the duration of the common cold. Gargling with warm saltwater may help those with a sore throat. Decongestants such as pseudoephedrine (Sudafed) or antihistamines may be used for nasal symptoms, while saline nasal sprays may also be beneficial. It is important to note that over-the-counter medications may cause undesirable side effects, therefore they must be taken with care.
Acetaminophen (Tylenol and others) and ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) can help with fever, sore throat, and body aches.
The treatment for infants and small children with the common cold is supportive as well. It is especially important to allow rest and encourage plenty of fluids in order to prevent dehydration. Nasal drops and bulb suctioning may be used to clear nasal mucus in infants. Medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen may be taken for pain or fever based on the package recommendations for age and weight. Do not use aspirin or aspirin-containing medications in children or teenagers because it has been associated with a rare, potentially fatal condition called Reye's syndrome. Finally, over-the-counter cough and cold medications for infants and children are not recommended (see WARNING below).
WARNING: The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that over-the-counter cough and cold medications not be used in children younger than 4 years of age because serious and potentially life-threatening side effects can occur.

Are antibiotics a suitable treatment for the common cold? No. Antibiotics play no role in treating the common cold. Antibiotics are effective only against illnesses caused by bacteria, and colds are caused by viruses. Not only do antibiotics not help, but they can rarely also cause severe allergic reactions that can sometimes be fatal. Furthermore, using antibiotics when they are not necessary has led to the growth of several strains of common bacteria that have become resistant to certain antibiotics. For these and other reasons, it is important to limit the use of antibiotics to situations in which they are medically indicated. Though occasionally a bacterial infection, such as sinusitis or a middle ear infection, can develop following the common cold, the decision to treat with antibiotics should be determined by your physician or health-care practitioner. When should a physician or other health-care practitioner be consulted? Generally, the common cold can be treated at home and managed with over-the-counter medications. However, if you develop more severe symptoms such as shaking chills, high fever (greater than 102 F), severe headache, neck stiffness, vomiting, abdominal pain, difficulty breathing, chest pain, confusion, or failure to improve after 10 days, you should consult your physician or health-care practitioner immediately. Infants 3 months of age or younger who develop a cold or fever should consult their health-care practitioner as well. If you have a sore throat and a fever with no other cold symptoms, you should also be evaluated by your physician. This illness may be strep throat, a bacterial infection requiring treatment with antibiotics. Finally, if you notice facial pain or yellow/green drainage from your nose accompanied by a fever, it is possible that you have a sinus infection (sinusitis) that would benefit from a medical evaluation and a possible course of antibiotics. How do you prevent the common cold? The most important measure to prevent the common cold is to avoid infected individuals. Frequent hand washing is also extremely important, as this can destroy viruses that you have acquired from touching contaminated surfaces. Also, try to avoid sharing utensils and try to use disposable items (such as disposable cups) if someone in your family has a cold. Finally, lifestyle modifications such as smoking cessation and stress management may decrease your susceptibility to acquiring the common cold. At this time, an effective vaccine against the common cold is not available. Common Cold At A Glance The common cold is caused by many different viruses. Being in cold weather does not cause the common cold. Over-the-counter medications may be used for treatment of the common cold. Antibiotics do not help the common cold. The common cold is self-limited and can generally be managed at home. Source: Medicinenet.com

THYROID

Thyroid Disease Symptoms and Signs

Thyroid disease is a common problem that can cause symptoms because of over- or under-function of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is an essential organ for producing thyroid hormones, which maintain are body metabolism. The thyroid gland is located in the front of the neck below the Adam's apple. Thyroid disease can also sometimes lead to enlargement of the thyroid gland in the neck, which can cause symptoms that are directly related to the increase in size of the organ (such as difficulty swallowing and discomfort in front of the neck).
Just as the types of thyroid conditions can vary, so can the symptoms of thyroid problems. Here, we have listed ten common symptoms of thyroid disease:

1. Nervousness and tremor: These symptoms, along with agitation, can signal an overfunction of the thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism).
   
2. Mental fogginess and poor concentration: Mental functioning can be affected in both hyperthyroidism (elevated levels of thyroid hormone) and hypothyroidism (too low levels of thyroid hormones). While sluggishness and depressed mood are often associated with hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism can also lead to a reduced capacity for concentration.
   
3. Menstrual changes: Hypothyroidism is sometimes associated with excessive or prolonged menstrual bleeding, while hyperthyroidism can be characterized by scanty or reduced menstrual flow.
   
4. Feeling bloated: Fluid retention is often a sign of an underactive thyroid gland.
   
5. Racing heartbeat: An increased heart rate (tachycardia) and palpitations can be symptoms of hyperthyroidism.
   
6. Aches and pains: Muscle aches and pain can accompany different types of thyroid problems.
   
7. Weight gain: A modest amount of weight gain often accompanies conditions in which thyroid gland activity is lower than normal.
   
8. High cholesterol levels: An increase in blood cholesterol levels can occur in individuals with hypothyroidism.
   
9. Heat intolerance: People with an overactive thyroid gland often complain of intolerance to higher temperatures.
   
10. Feeling cold: Conversely, those with an underfunctioning thyroid may feel constantly cold.

It is important to remember that none of these symptoms is absolutely specific for thyroid disease. All of them may be caused by a number of different conditions and normal states. Your health care professional can order laboratory tests to evaluate the function of your thyroid gland if you have troubling symptoms

Thyroid Anatomy Illustration

Picture of the Thyroid

The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of the neck just below the Adams apple. The gland wraps around the windpipe (trachea) and has a shape that is similar to a butterfly formed by two wings (lobes) and attached by a middle part (isthmus).
The thyroid gland works like a tiny factory that uses iodine (mostly from the diet in foods such as seafood and salt) to produce thyroid hormones. These hormones help to regulate the body's metabolism and effects processes, such as growth and other important functions of the body.
The two most important thyroid hormones are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), representing 99.9% and 0.1% of thyroid hormones respectively. The hormone with the most biological power is actually T3. Once released from the thyroid gland into the blood, a large amount of T4 is converted to T3 - the active hormone that affects the metabolism of cells throughout our body.

Image Source: MedicineNet, Inc.

PSORIASIS

What is psoriasis?

Psoriasis is a noncontagious skin condition that produces red, dry plaques of thickened skin. The dry flakes and skin scales are thought to result from the rapid proliferation of skin cells that is triggered by abnormal lymphocytes from the blood . Psoriasis commonly affects the skin of the elbows, knees, and scalp.
Some people have such mild psoriasis (small, faint dry skin patches) that they may not even suspect that they have a medical skin condition. Others have very severe psoriasis where virtually their entire body is fully covered with thick, red, scaly skin.
Psoriasis is considered a non-curable, long-term (chronic) skin condition. It has a variable course, periodically improving and worsening. It is not unusual for psoriasis to spontaneously clear for years and stay in remission. Many people note a worsening of their symptoms in the colder winter months.

Psoriasis is seen worldwide, in all races, and both sexes. Although psoriasis can be seen in people of any age, from babies to seniors, most commonly patients are first diagnosed in their early adult years.
Patients with more severe psoriasis may have social embarrassment, job stress, emotional distress, and other personal issues because of the appearance of their skin.

What causes psoriasis?

The exact cause remains unknown. There may be a combination of factors, including genetic predisposition and environmental factors. It is common for psoriasis to be found in members of the same family. The immune system is thought to play a major role. Despite research over the past 30 years looking at many triggers, the "master switch" that turns on psoriasis is still a mystery.

What does psoriasis look like? What are the symptoms and signs?

Psoriasis typically looks like red or pink areas of thickened, raised, and dry skin. It classically affects areas over the elbows, knees, and scalp. Essentially any body area may be involved. It tends to be more common in areas of trauma, repeat rubbing, use, or abrasions.
Psoriasis has many different appearances. It may be small flattened bumps, large thick plaques of raised skin, red patches, and pink mildly dry skin to big flakes of dry skin that flake off.
There are several different types of psoriasis, including psoriasis vulgaris (common type), guttate psoriasis (small, drop like spots), inverse psoriasis (in the folds like of the underarms, navel, and buttocks), and pustular psoriasis (pus-filled, yellowish, small blisters). When the palms and the soles are involved, this is known as palmoplantar psoriasis.
Sometimes pulling of one of these small dry white flakes of skin causes a tiny blood spot on the skin. This is medically referred to as a special diagnostic sign in psoriasis called the Auspitz sign.
Genital lesions, especially on the head of the penis, are common. Psoriasis in moist areas like the navel or area between the buttocks (intergluteal folds) may look like flat red patches. These atypical appearances may be confused with other skin conditions like fungal infections, yeast infections, skin irritation, or bacterial Staph infections.
On the nails, it can look like very small pits (pinpoint depressions or white spots on the nail) or as larger yellowish-brown separations of the nail bed called "oil spots." Nail psoriasis may be confused with and incorrectly diagnosed as a fungal nail infection.
On the scalp, it may look like severe dandruff with dry flakes and red areas of skin. It may be difficult to tell the difference between scalp psoriasis and seborrhea (dandruff). However, the treatment is often very similar for both conditions.
What is the treatment for psoriasis?


There are many effective treatment choices for psoriasis. The best treatment is individually determined by the treating physician and depends, in part, on the type of disease, the severity, and the total body area involved.
For mild disease that involves only small areas of the body (like less than 10% of the total skin surface), topical (skin applied) creams, lotions, and sprays may be very effective and safe to use. Occasionally, a small local injection of steroids directly into a tough or resistant isolated psoriasis plaque may be helpful.
For moderate to severe disease that involves much larger areas of the body (like 20% or more of the total skin surface), topical products may not be effective or practical to apply. These cases may require ultra-violet light treatments or systemic (total body treatments such as pills or injections) medications. Internal medications usually have greater risks.
For psoriatic arthritis, systemic medications are generally required to stop the progression of permanent joint destruction. Topical therapies are not effective.
It is important to keep in mind that as with any medical condition, all medications carry possible side effects. No medication is 100% effective for everyone, and no medication is 100% safe. The decision to use any medication requires thorough consideration and discussion with your physician. The risks and potential benefit of medications have to be considered for each type of psoriasis and the individual patient. Some patients are not bothered at all by their skin symptoms and may not want any treatment. Other patients are bothered by even small patches of psoriasis and want to keep their skin clear. Everyone is different and, therefore, treatment choices also vary depending on the patient's goals and expressed wishes.
An approach to minimize the toxicity of some of these medicines has been commonly called "rotational" therapy. The idea is to change the antipsoriasis drug every six to 24 months in order to minimize the possible side effects from any one type of therapy or medication.
In another example, a patient who has been using strong topical steroids over large areas of their body for prolonged periods may benefit from stopping the steroids for a while and rotating onto a different therapy like calcitriol (Vectical), light therapy, or an injectable biologic.

What creams or lotions are available for psoriasis?

Topical (skin applied) medications include topical corticosteroids, vitamin D analogue creams calcitriol, topical retinoids (Tazorac), moisturizers, topical immunomodulators (tacrolimus and pimecrolimus), coal tar, anthralin, and others.

• Topical corticosteroids (steroids, such as hydrocortisone) are very useful and often the first-line treatment for limited or small areas of psoriasis. These come in many preparations, including sprays, liquid, creams, gels, ointments, and mousses. Steroids come in many different strengths, including stronger ones are used for elbows, knees, and tougher skin areas and milder ones for areas like the face, underarms, and groin. These are usually applied once or twice a day to affected skin areas.
  
  Strong steroid preparations should be limited in use. Overuse or prolonged use may cause problems including potential permanent skin thinning and damage called atrophy.



• A vitamin D analogue cream called calcitriol has also been useful in psoriasis. The advantage of calcitriol is that it is not known to overly thin the skin like topical steroids. It is important to note that this drug is not regular vitamin D and is not the same as taking regular vitamin D or rubbing it on the skin.
  
  A similar drug, calcipotriene, may be used in combination with topical steroids for better results. There is a newer two-in-one combination preparation of calcipotriene and a topical steroid called Taclonex. Results with calcipotriene alone may be slower and less than results achieved with typical topical steroids. Not all patients may respond to calcipotriene as well as to topical steroids.
  
  A special precaution with vitamin D analogue creams is that it should not be used on more than 20% of the skin in one person. Overuse may cause absorption of the drug and an abnormal rise in body calcium levels.



• Moisturizers, especially with therapeutic concentrations of salicylic acid, lactic acid, urea, and glycolic acid may be helpful in psoriasis. These moisturizers are available as prescription and nonprescription forms. These help moisten and lessen the appearance of thickened psoriasis scales. Some available preparations include Salex (salicylic acid), AmLactin (lactic acid), or Lac-Hydrin (lactic acid) lotions. These may be used one to three times a day on the body and do not generally have a risk of problematic skin thinning (atrophy). Overuse or use on broken, inflamed skin may cause stinging, burning, and more irritation. These stronger preparations should not be used over delicate skin like eyelids, face, or genitals. Other bland moisturizers including Vaseline and Crisco vegetable shortening may also be helpful in at least reducing the dry appearance of psoriasis.



• Immunomodulators (tacrolimus and pimecrolimus) have also been used with some success in limited types of psoriasis. These have the advantage of not causing skin thinning. They may have other potential side effects, including skin infections and possible malignancies (cancers). The exact association of these immunomodulator creams and cancer is controversial.



• Bath salts or bathing in high-salt-concentration waters like the Dead Sea in the Middle East may help some psoriasis patients. Epsom salt soaks (available over the counter) may also be helpful for a number of patients. Overall, these are quite safe with very few possible side effects.



• Coal tar is available in multiple preparations, including shampoos, bath solutions, and creams. Coal tar may help reduce the appearance and decrease the flakes in psoriasis. The odor, staining, and overall messiness with coal tar may make it harder to use and less desirable than other therapies. A major advantage with tar is lack of skin thinning.



• Anthralin is available for topical use as a cream, ointment, or paste. The stinging, possible irritation, and skin discoloration may make this less acceptable to use. Anthralin may be applied for 10-30 minutes to psoriatic skin.
• What injections or infusions are available for psoriasis?

The newest category of psoriasis drugs are called biologics. All biologics modulate (adjust) and sometime suppress (quiet) the immune system that is overactive in psoriasis. Currently available biologic drugs include alefacept (Amevive), adalimumab (Humira), infliximab (Remicade), etanercept (Enbrel), and ustekinumab (Stelara). Newer drugs are in development and may be on the market in the near future. As this class of drugs is fairly new, ongoing monitoring and adverse effect reporting continues and long-term safety continues to be monitored. Although previously available, efalizumab (Raptiva) was removed from the U.S. market in early 2009 due to reported safety concerns for the development of a serious brain disease, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Individuals still taking Raptiva should contact their health-care professional to discuss risks and benefits of treatment with this drug.
A recently approved biologic product for adults who have a moderate to severe form of psoriasis is ustekinumab (Stelara). Stelara is a laboratory-produced antibody that treats psoriasis by blocking the action of two proteins (interleukins) that contribute to the overproduction of skin cells and inflammation.
Some biologics are self-injections for home use while others are intramuscular injections or intravenous infusions in the physician's office.
Biologics have some screening requirements such as a tuberculosis screening test (TB skin test or PPD test) and other labs prior to starting therapy.
As with any drug, side effects are possible with all biologic drugs. Common potential side effects include mild local injection-site reactions (redness and tenderness). There is concern of serious infections and potential malignancy with nearly all biologic drugs.
Precautions include patients with known or suspected hepatitis B or C infection, active tuberculosis, and possibly HIV/AIDS. As a general consideration, these drugs may not be an ideal choice for patients with a history of cancer and patients actively undergoing cancer therapy.
In particular, there may be an increased association of lymphoma in patients taking biologics. It is not at all certain if this association is directly caused by these drugs. In part, this is because it is known that certain diseases like rheumatoid arthritis or psoriasis may be associated with an inherent increase in the overall risk of some infections and malignancies.
Biologics are expensive medications ranging in price from several to tens of thousands of dollars per year per person. Their use may be limited by availability, cost, and insurance approval. Not all insurance drug plans may fully cover these drugs for all conditions. Patients need to check with their insurance and may require a prior authorization request for coverage approval. Some of the biologics manufacturers have patient-assistance programs to help with financial issues.
The choice of the right medication for your condition depends on many medical factors. Additionally, convenience of receiving the medication and lifestyle may be factors in choosing the right biologic medication.
Currently, the four main classes of biologic drugs for psoriasis are:

1. TNF (tumor necrosis factor) blockers,
2. drugs that block T-cell activation and the movement of T-cells,
3. drugs that decrease the number of activated T-cells, and
4. drugs that interfere with interleukin chemical messengers of inflammation.

TNF blockers
TNF blockers include Enbrel (etanercept), Remicade (infliximab) and Humira (adalimumab). TNF-alpha blocking drugs may have an advantage of treating psoriatic arthritis and psoriasis skin disease. Their disadvantage is that some patients may notice a decrease in the effectiveness of TNF-alpha blocking drugs over months to years.
TNF blockers are generally not used in patients with demyelinating (neurological) diseases like multiple sclerosis, congestive heart failure, or patients with severe overall low blood counts called pancytopenia.
The major side effect of these class of drugs is suppression of the immune system. Because of the increased risk of infections while on these drugs, patients should promptly report fevers or signs of infection to their physicians. Minor side effects have included autoimmune conditions like lupus or flares in lupus. Additionally, it is best to avoid any live vaccines while using TNF blockers.

• Enbrel (etanercept) is a self-injectable medication for home use. It is injected via a small needle just under the skin, called subcutaneous injection. It is usually dosed once or twice week by patients at home after training with their physician or the nursing staff. Sometimes a higher loading dose is used for the first 12 weeks and then it is "stepped down" to half the dose after the first 12 weeks. Enbrel has the advantage of at least 16 years of clinical use and long-term experience.
• Remicade (infliximab) is an intravenous (IV) medication strictly for physician office or special infusion medical center use. It is dosed specifically based on your weight. It is currently not for home use or self-injection. It is injected slowly over time via a small needle into a vein. It may usually be dosed once a week. There have been reports of antibodies to this drug in patients taking it for some time. These antibodies may cause a greater drug-dose requirement for achieving disease improvement or failure to improve. The IV route may be more time-consuming, requiring physician during the infusions. Remicade has the advantage of fast disease response and good potency.
• Humira (adalimumab) is a self-injectable medication for home use. It is injected via a small needle just under the skin as a subcutaneous dose. It is usually dosed once every other week, totaling 26 injections in one year. Dosing is individualized and should be discussed with your physician. Sometimes a higher loading dose is used for the first dose (80 mg) and then it is continued at 40 mg every other week. It may give results as soon as one to two weeks of therapy. Humira has the advantage of at least 11 years of clinical use and long-term experience.

Drugs that decrease the number of activated T-cells

• Amevive (alefacept) decreases the number of available activated T-cells that play a role in causing psoriasis. It is given intramuscularly (injected in the muscle) usually in the physician's office and given once a week for 12 weeks. Many patients may see improvement in their symptoms that lasts approximately 12 months (more or less). Amevive may not be uniformly effective for all patients, and some patients improve more than others. The average time to maximum improvement for many patients is about 14 weeks.
  
  Amevive should generally not be used in patients with HIV infections as the drug causes a decrease in the CD4 cells (part of the immune system that HIV also attacks).
  
  Also, because of the immune-system suppression, Amevive may not be a good choice in patients with active cancer or infection. As Amevive is one of the two currently available drugs that inhibits T cells directly, there may be a potential concern for immunosuppression and increased susceptibility to infections including PML. The risks and benefits of treatment with biologics need to be assessed for each individual.

Drugs that interfere with interleukin mechanisms

• Ustekinumab is the newest biologic injectable medication used to modulate the immune system. It is an interleukin-12/23 human monoclonal antibody. Ustekinumab targets chemical messengers in the immune system involved in skin inflammation and skin-cell production. This drug is dosed subcutaneously (just under the skin) once a quarter (every three months). It has been very promising with very good clearance rates in the clinical trials. A major advantage may be the convenience of a quarterly medication. The concerns for infection and malignancy may be similar to the other biologics.

DYSENTERY

What is dysentery?

Dysentery broadly refers to gastrointestinal disorders characterized by inflammation of the intestines, chiefly the colon. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines dysentery as any episode of diarrhea in which blood is present in loose, watery stools.

• Dysentery is spread among humans through contaminated food and water. Once a person is infected, the infectious organism lives in the intestines and is passed in the stool of the infected person. With some infections, animals can also be infected and spread the disease to humans.

Common bacterial causes of dysentery in the United States include infections with the bacteria Shigella and some types of Escherichia coli (E coli). Other less common bacterial causes of bloody diarrhea include Salmonella and Campylobacter infections. Dysentery is associated with environmental conditions where poor sanitation is prevalent. For example, childcare institutions and developing countries have higher rates of Shigella. Amebic dysentery, caused by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica, is most commonly found in tropical areas with crowded living conditions and poor sanitation.
The signs and symptoms of dysentery can last five to seven days or even longer. The course of the illness varies among individuals, as do symptoms. Some people suffering with dysentery have mild symptoms, while others may have severe diarrhea with or without vomiting that can pose a risk of dehydration. Fortunately, dysentery can be treated with antibiotics and antiparasitic medications.
Untreated dysentery can lead to severe dehydration. Severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalances can result in shock or coma and may be life-threatening. Seek immediate medical care (call 911) if you, or someone you are with, have symptoms of severe dehydration such as confusion, lethargy, loss of consciousness, cold skin, or decreased urine output. Seek prompt medical care if you develop diarrhea and vomiting and believe you may have been exposed to contaminated food or water.

What are the symptoms of dysentery?

Dysentery causes irritation and inflammation of the intestines that may result in a number of symptoms. The symptoms can vary in intensity among individuals.

Common symptoms of dysentery

The most common symptoms of dysentery are related to disturbances of the digestive system and include:

• Abdominal bloating
• Abdominal pain
• Bloody diarrhea
• Flatulence
• Nausea with or without vomiting

Other symptoms of dysentery

As the dysentery infection progresses, other symptoms, including symptoms of dehydration, may develop. Other possible symptoms include:

• Decreased urine output
• Dry skin and mucous membranes (such as dry mouth)
• Feeling very thirsty
• Fever and chills
• Muscle cramps
• Muscle weakness (loss of strength)
• Weight loss

Serious symptoms that might indicate a life-threatening condition

On rare occasions, dehydration resulting from dysentery may be so severe that a life-threatening situation can develop. Seek immediate medical care (call 911) if you, or someone you are with, have any of the following symptoms:

• Change in level of consciousness or alertness, such as passing out or unresponsiveness
• Change in mental status or sudden behavior change, such as confusion, delirium, lethargy, hallucinations and delusions
• High fever (higher than 101 degrees Fahrenheit)
• Rapid heart rate (tachycardia)
• Severe abdominal pain
• Severe dizziness

What causes dysentery?

The bacteria Shigella and E coli and the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica are the most common causes of dysentery. These organisms are present in the stool (feces) of infected people and animals. The Entamoeba histolytica may uneventfully reside in the colon, but if it attacks the colon wall, it can cause dysentery. People with weakened immune systems are also more likely to develop amebic dysentery.
Most commonly, dysentery is caused by drinking water or eating food from sources contaminated with feces containing the pathogens. Swimming in contaminated water may also result in dysentery. For this reason, dysentery occurs most frequently in people traveling to developing countries and in children who touch infected human or animal feces without proper hand washing.

Common causes of dysentery include:

Several organisms are known to cause dysentery, most commonly:

• Campylobacter
• Certain types of E coli
• Entamoeba histolytica
• Salmonella
• Shigella

What are the risk factors for dysentery?

A number of factors increase the risk of developing dysentery. Not all people with risk factors will get dysentery. Risk factors for dysentery include:

• Attendance or work in a day care setting
• Close contact with an infected person or animal
• Consumption of untreated water from lakes, rivers or streams
• Fecal to oral contact
• Travel in countries where the infection is common
• Use of public swimming pools

Reducing your risk of dysentery

You can lower your risk of developing or transmitting dysentery by:

• Avoiding swallowing water in swimming pools, hot tubs, or other recreational water sources
• Drinking only purified water when backpacking, camping or hiking
• Drinking only purified water when visiting developing countries
• Using purified water for brushing your teeth and washing food when visiting developing countries
• Washing your hands well with soap and water after touching feces, having contact with an infected person or animal, changing diapers, or using the bathroom, and before eating or preparing food

How is dysentery treated?

Treatment for dysentery begins with seeking medical care from your health care provider. To determine if you have dysentery, your health care provider may ask you to provide stool samples for laboratory testing.
Antibiotic therapy is the mainstay of treatment for dysentery due to bacterial organisms and is highly effective. It is important to follow your treatment plan for dysentery precisely and to take all of the antibiotics as instructed to avoid reinfection or recurrence.

Antibiotics for the treatment of dysentery

Antibiotic medications that are effective in the treatment of dysentery caused by bacterial organisms include:

• Ceftriaxone (Rocephin)
• Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim, Septra)

The most common treatment for amebic dysentery caused by Entamoeba histolytica is metronidazole (Flagyl), an antiparasitic medication.
If you have diarrhea and vomiting, fluid and electrolyte replenishment is also a component of successful treatment.

What you can do to improve dysentery

In addition to following your health care provider’s instructions and taking all medications as prescribed, you can speed your recovery by:

• Ensuring adequate hydration by drinking plenty of water and electrolyte solutions
• Getting plenty of rest

If you have dysentery, it is important to practice good hygiene to avoid spreading the infection to those who have close contact with you. Wash your hands frequently with soap and water after using the bathroom or touching any contaminated bedding or clothing. Avoid use of public pools, hot tubs, or other recreational water facilities until your infection has cleared.

What are the potential complications of dysentery?

You can help minimize your risk of serious complications by following the treatment plan you and your health care provider design specifically for you. Complications of dysentery include:

• Liver abscess
• Postinfectious arthritis (joint pain, eye irritation, and painful urination)
• Spread of infection

Source:  bettermedicine.com

Treatment for Dysentery - Herbal and Home Remedies

What are the treatment of dysentery ?

The person suffering from bloody diarrhea (dysentery) needs immediate medical help. Treatment often starts with an oral rehydrating solution - water mixed with salt and carbohydrates, drinking this solution will help you in preventing dehydration (which may be fatal if it occurs).

Some Herbal Remedies for treatment of dysentery are:

• Piyushvalli Ras - You may take one-two tablets of Piyushvalli Ras with roasted bael fruit and jaggery, two times daily.

• Kadukkai Thole - Take two grams of powdered kadukkai thole (Rind of the Terminalia Chebula) with honey.

• Kutajaghana Vati - One or two tablets of Kutajaghana Vati, when taken 2-3 times daily with water, is useful in treatment of dysentery.

• Bael Fruit - Bael Fruit is also very good for dysentery. It is used when nothing works, the most useful and effective remedy which has been tried by many and proved successful too.

• Sheng Jiang and Brown Sugar - Preparations made from sheng jiang and brown sugar are useful in treating dysentery.

• Dried Mango Fruit - One teaspoonful of dried mango fruit when taken with butter milk two times a day acts as a good curative for dysentery.

• Pudin Hara - Add a few drops of Pudin Hara or Amritdhara (mint essence or peppermint) to half a cup of water and drink it 3-4 times daily.

• Aloe Vera & Rosehip - Aloe Vera and Rosehip are also good for tissue repairing after dysentery.

• Rasaparpati - 150 gms of Rasaparpati may also be given to the person suffering from dysentery, three times daily.

• Pomegranate Seeds and Rasins - Make a paste of - dry pomegranate seeds (Anardana), Raisin (Kishmis) and a small amount of salt. This is a very effective herbal remedy for curing dysentery and has prooved to be successfully many a times.

• A tea of star grass leaves is also good for dysentery.

• Mangoosthan Fuit - One Mangoosthan (Mangostain) fruit can be taken twice a day as a good remedy for dysentery.

• Garlic - Garlic is also useful as a herbal remedy for curing dysentery. One garlic capsule taken three times daily is usually sufficient for curing mild cases of dysentery. However, upto 4 capsules can be taken daily in some severe cases.

• Vetpalai Seeds - Take One teaspoon full of powder of Vetpalai seeds (Wrightiatinctoria) with honey two times a day.

• Some other good herbs for dysentery may include - Bach Flowers, Impatiens, Chestnut Bud and Crab Apple. These herbs will most probably recover your from this parasite attack when taken daily for 6 weeks.

Some Home Remedies for Curing Dysentery Fast

In case of dysentery, some of the home remedies are:

• Lemon Juice - Lemon juice is good for treating ordinary type of dysentery. A few lemons, peeled and sliced were added to 250 ml of water and the mixture was boiled for a few minutes. Now after that the mixture can be drunk atleast 3 times daily.

• Mint and Ginger Juice - You can also drink a mixture of 1 tsp mint juice, 1/2 tsp ginger juice, and 1 tsp honey.

• Onion - Small pieces of onions mixed with curd can be given to the suffering person upto six times daily.

• Basil Leaves - Take 5-6 basil (tulsi) leaves (chopped), 1/4 teaspoon sea salt, some black pepper in 3 table spoon of curd, and mix them properly. Now eat this mixture atleast 4 times daily for one week.

• Nut Grass - Take some tubercles of nut grass and then powder them properly and mix in them fresh ginger juice and honey. This mixture can be taken in parts of 20 gm, three times in a day.

• Papaya - Grate one raw papaya. Add 3 cups of water into it and boil it for near about 10 mins. Now strain the mixture and finish the water in one day.
• source.Ayurvedic-medicines.org

ELEPHANTIASIS

Elephantiasis

What is Elephantiasis?

Elephantiasis is also called lymphatic filariasis.

What Causes Elephantiasis?

Elephantiasis is caused by several different types of parasitic worms, including Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and B. timori.

Elephantiasis is transmitted by female mosquitoes. When an infected female mosquito bites a person, she may inject the worm larvae into the bloodstream. The worm larvae reproduce and spread throughout the bloodstream, where they can live for many years.

Symptoms of Elephantiasis

In many cases, symptoms of elephantiasis do not appear until years after infection. As the parasites accumulate in the blood vessels, they can restrict circulation and cause fluid to build up in surrounding tissues.

Symptoms of acute infection of elephantiasis are:

• Fever
• Pain in testicles
• Pain above testicles
• Enlarged groin lymph nodes

Symptoms of chronic infection of elephantiasis are:

• Massively swollen legs, genitalia and breasts
• White urinary discharge
• Swollen liver
• Swollen spleen

Can Elephantiasis be Treated?

Yes, elephantiasis can be treated with medication. Medicines to treat lymphatic filariasis are most effective when used soon after infection, but they do have some toxic side effects. In addition, elephantiasis is difficult to detect early. In severe cases, surgery may be needed.

ITCHING

What is an itch?

Itch is an irritation in the skin that elicits an urge to scratch. Itches are a common problem and can be localized (limited to one area of the body) or generalized (occurring all over the body or in several different areas). In some cases, itching may be worse at night. The medical term for itching is pruritus.
Generalized itch is often more difficult to treat than localized itch. Itches can also occur with or without skin lesions (bumps, blisters, or abnormalities that can be seen on the skin). An itch that is accompanied by a visible skin abnormality usually should be evaluated by a physician and, in some cases, by a dermatologist since the problem is likely to be a condition that requires specialized medical treatment (for example, eczema, scabies, etc.).

What causes itching?

Itching can be caused by many conditions. A common cause of itch is psychological, that is, due to stress, anxiety, etc. Stress also can aggravate itch from other causes. Dry skin (xerosis) is another frequent cause of itch. Many people also report sunburn itch following prolonged exposure to UV radiation from the sun. Other causes of generalized itching that may not produce a rash or specific skin changes include metabolic and endocrine disorders (for example, liver or kidney disease, hyperthyroidism), cancers (for example, lymphoma), reactions to drugs, and interruptions in bile flow (cholestasis), diseases of the blood (for example, polycythemia vera). Itching is common with allergic reactions. Itching can also result from insect stings and bites such as from mosquito or flea bites.
Infections and infestations of the skin are another cause of itch. Genital itching, which may accompany burning and pain, in men and women can occur as a result of genital infections such as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Vaginal itching is sometimes referred to as feminine itching, and sexually transmitted diseases can also cause anal itching. Other common infectious causes of itch include a fungal infection of the crotch (tinea cruris) commonly known as jock itch, psoriasis, and ringworm of the body (tinea corporis), as well as vaginal itching (sometimes referred to as feminine itching) and/or anal itching from sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or other types of infections, such as vaginal yeast infections. Another type of parasitic infection resulting in itch is the so-called swimmer's itch. Swimmer's itch, also called cercarial dermatitis, is a skin rash caused by an allergic reaction to infection with certain parasites of birds and mammals that are released from infected snails in fresh and saltwater. Itch may also result from skin infestation by body lice, including head lice and pubic lice. Scabies is a highly contagious skin condition caused by an infestation by the itch mite Sarcoptes scabiei that is known to cause an intense itch that is particularly severe at night.
Itching can also result from conditions that affect the nerves, such as diabetes, shingles (herpes zoster), or multiple sclerosis. Irritation of the skin from contact with fabrics, cosmetics, or other substances can lead to itching that may be accompanied by rash. Reactions to drugs or medications can also result in widespread itching that may be accompanied by a rash or hives. Sometimes women report that they experience generalized itching during pregnancy or a worsening of the conditions that normally cause itching.
Most people who have itching, however, do not have a serious underlying condition.

What causes itching?

Itching can be caused by many conditions. A common cause of itch is psychological, that is, due to stress, anxiety, etc. Stress also can aggravate itch from other causes. Dry skin (xerosis) is another frequent cause of itch. Many people also report sunburn itch following prolonged exposure to UV radiation from the sun. Other causes of generalized itching that may not produce a rash or specific skin changes include metabolic and endocrine disorders (for example, liver or kidney disease, hyperthyroidism), cancers (for example, lymphoma), reactions to drugs, and interruptions in bile flow (cholestasis), diseases of the blood (for example, polycythemia vera). Itching is common with allergic reactions. Itching can also result from insect stings and bites such as from mosquito or flea bites.
Infections and infestations of the skin are another cause of itch. Genital itching, which may accompany burning and pain, in men and women can occur as a result of genital infections such as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Vaginal itching is sometimes referred to as feminine itching, and sexually transmitted diseases can also cause anal itching. Other common infectious causes of itch include a fungal infection of the crotch (tinea cruris) commonly known as jock itch, psoriasis, and ringworm of the body (tinea corporis), as well as vaginal itching (sometimes referred to as feminine itching) and/or anal itching from sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or other types of infections, such as vaginal yeast infections. Another type of parasitic infection resulting in itch is the so-called swimmer's itch. Swimmer's itch, also called cercarial dermatitis, is a skin rash caused by an allergic reaction to infection with certain parasites of birds and mammals that are released from infected snails in fresh and saltwater. Itch may also result from skin infestation by body lice, including head lice and pubic lice. Scabies is a highly contagious skin condition caused by an infestation by the itch mite Sarcoptes scabiei that is known to cause an intense itch that is particularly severe at night.
Itching can also result from conditions that affect the nerves, such as diabetes, shingles (herpes zoster), or multiple sclerosis. Irritation of the skin from contact with fabrics, cosmetics, or other substances can lead to itching that may be accompanied by rash. Reactions to drugs or medications can also result in widespread itching that may be accompanied by a rash or hives. Sometimes women report that they experience generalized itching during pregnancy or a worsening of the conditions that normally cause itching.
Most people who have itching, however, do not have a serious underlying condition.

Should I scratch the itch?

Itching usually prompts scratching, which can sometimes lead to a vicious itch-scratch cycle. Scratching can initially feel satisfying, but prolonged scratching just leaves you with irritated skin that can still itch and often worsens the itching itself. Since scratching provides only temporary relief and doesn't promote healing of the underlying problem, it is best to avoid scratching if at all possible. If scratching breaks open the skin, bacterial infection can set in known as secondary infection. And if scratching continues for many months or years, the area that is scratched may develop thickened skin (lichenification) or pigmentation that darkens the area.
The best way to allow irritated skin to heal is to stop scratching it. However, will power often is not enough since the urge to scratch can be compelling. The following sections discuss some general measures and home remedies to help control itch, regardless of the cause.

What are topical (external) itch treatments?

Cold applications: Because cold and itch travel along the same nerve fibers, the use of cold can "jam the circuits" and deaden itch. Methods of applying cold include the following:

• Cool water, either by running tap water over the affected area or placing a cold clean washcloth on the skin
  
  
• Cool showers



• A cool bath; products that contain colloidal oatmeal are available over-the-counter as an itch relief bath



• Ice packs, either the commercially available type or ice cubes in a plastic bag

Hot water (in the shower, for instance) feels good temporarily, but it often leaves you feeling itchier later. Therefore, the use of hot water is not recommended.
Anti-itch creams and lotions: Look for over-the-counter (OTC) remedies with these ingredients:

• Camphor
  
  
• Menthol



• Phenol



• Pramoxine



• Diphenhydramine
  
  
• Benzocaine (or one of the other "caine" anesthetics)

You can apply these products over and over -- every few minutes if needed. These preparations help numb the nerve endings and stop you from a frenzy of scratching, which leaves the skin raw, sore, and even itchier.
Although hydrocortisone-containing creams and lotions are often promoted as itch reducers, this ingredient only helps an itch that is caused by a rash responsive to cortisone, such as eczema and seborrhea. Since OTC hydrocortisone-containing creams and lotions are weak (even so-called "maximum-strength" products are only 1%), they aren't too helpful for itch even in responsive conditions. When itching is caused by irritations of other sorts (insect bites, for instance), hydrocortisone doesn't help much at all. If you use hydrocortisone for 10 days and experience no improvement, you should see a physician to help determine the cause of your itch.

What are oral itch treatments?

Traditionally, antihistamines are used to treat itch. Examples include diphenhydramine (Benadryl), hydroxyzine (Atarax), and chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton and others). These medicines can induce drowsiness in many people and must be used with care before driving a car or operating heavy machinery. Although antihistamines may help itch, they seem to do so mainly by helping people fall asleep and avoid scratching at night. If falling or staying asleep is not your main problem, one of the nonsedating antihistamines may be tried. Loratidine (Claritin) and fexofenadine (Allegra and others) are examples of newer second-generation antihistamines that are available OTC. The second-generation antihistamines do not have the sedating effects of the older first-generation antihistamines.

When should the doctor be consulted for itching?

If home treatment isn't helping, or you notice that scratching is affecting the skin being scratched (infection, lichenification [thickening and scarring], or pigmentation), or the itch is disturbing your sleep, you should consult a doctor to ascertain why you're itching. A doctor can also prescribe stronger cortisone-based creams (for eczemas and allergies) and prescription-grade antihistamines, if necessary, or treat the underlying condition that is causing the itch.

Source:medicinenet.com

Itching - Causes and Herbal Remedies

Definition:

Itching can be defined as a sensation or an urge on the skin to scratch. An irritation on the skin surface which develops an urge to scratch is what is generally known as itching.

Causes:

There are supposed to be many causes for itching sensation, some of them are listed below:

• Stress and Anxiety is found a prominent cause of itching sensations in human beings.
• Dry skin.
• Prolonged exposure to the sun's UV rays, in other words sunburn is also a reason for itching.
• Metabolic or Endocrine Disorders.
• Drug Reactions.
• Blood related disorders.
• Insect stings and bites, for instance flea and mosquito bites.
• Infections such as Vaginal Itching, Anal Itching due to Sexually Transmitted Diseases.
• Fungal Infections, Ringworms, etc.
• Skin Rashes.
• Head Lice or Pubic Lice.

Herbal Remedies:

Some wonderful natural herbal remedies for itching are:

• Applying Sandal Wood Oil or Sandal Wood paste on the itching areas help getting relief from itch.
• Dashang Lepa, an Ayurvedic Remedy made by a combination of 10 Ayurvedic herbs, help get instant relief from itching.
• Applying Neem Oil, or a neem leaves paste help cure itching.
• Marichaida Taila is an Ayurvedic oil containing black pepper, application of this oil helps relief from all skin infections and itching as well.
• Gandhak serves as an excellent herbal treatment for itching
• Consuming neem powder orally also help cure skin infections and itching.
• Drinking Aloe-Vera juice empty stomach early in the morning helps curing any skin disorder and itching.

Home Remedies:

Some home based cures and remedies for the itching sensation are:

• In an amount equal to lemon juice, mix linseed oil and apply it on the place where itching is felt. This remedy would help cure any kind of an itch.
• Applying the root of bitter gourd (karela) juice on the skin relieves itching to a great extent.
• Mix fresh coconut juice and a tomato. Massage this mixture on the itchy region. The itchy feeling will fade soon.
• Boil some 25 grams of mango barks and babul barks with each other in a liter of water. Allow a fomentation of these vapors directly on the affected areas of the skin. When the fomentation is done, dab the region with ghee. The itchy feeling will disappear.
• Itching due to dryness of skin can be easily reduced by application of milk cream on the skin and massaging it. This acts as a moisturizer
• Source:Ayurvedic-medicines.org

PREGNANCY

Pregnancy Symptoms

Symptoms of pregnancy include the following:

• Breast tenderness
  
  
• Nausea, vomiting, or both
  
  
• Missing a period or having an abnormal period
  
  
• Weight gain
  
  
• Breast enlargement, nipples darkening, or breast discharge
  
  
• Urinatingmore frequently than usual
  
  
• Fetal movement (may be perceived after 20 weeks for new mothers)

Pregnancy Overview

Pregnancy occurs when an egg is fertilized by a sperm, grows inside a woman's uterus (womb), and develops into a baby. In humans, this process takes about 264 days, but the obstetrician will date from the last menstrual period or 280 days (40 weeks).

• The doctor will use certain terms in discussing a woman's pregnancy. Some of the following definitions are useful:
  
  
  • Intra-uterine pregnancy: A normal pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg is implanted in the uterus (womb) and an embryo grows.
    
    
  • Embryo: The term used for the developing fertilized egg during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy.
    
    
  • Fetus: The term used for the developing embryo after 12 weeks of gestation.
    
    
  • Beta human chorionic gonadotropin (also called beta-hCG): This hormone is secreted by the placenta and can be measured to determine the presence and progression of the pregnancy. Urine or blood can be tested for its presence, and it is the hormone measured by a home pregnancy test. A positive result means a woman is pregnant; however, this test result can stay positive for several weeks after delivering a baby or after a miscarriage.
    
    
  • Trimester: The length of time of a pregnancy is divided into three sections called trimesters (about three months each). Each trimester has particular events and developmental markers. For instance, the first trimester builds the foundation of the different organ systems.
    
    
  • Estimated date of delivery (EDD): The delivery date is estimated by counting forward 280 days from the first day of the woman's last period. It is also called the estimated date of confinement (EDC).
  
  
• The woman who is pregnant and her doctor will monitor the pregnancy either to prevent certain conditions from developing or to treat those conditions early. These conditions include the following:
  
  
• High-risk pregnancy: If a woman is considered to be likely to have complications during pregnancy, the pregnancy may be termed high risk. Examples include pregnancies in women with diabetes and those with high blood pressure. Age-related complications can occur in women such as teenagers, women who are over the age of 35, or women who have been treated for infertility or with pregnancies from the use of assisted reproductive technologies.
  
  
• Ectopic pregnancy: This is a pregnancy in which the egg implants somewhere other than the uterus. This can be life threatening. Ectopic pregnancy must be diagnosed early to avoid damage tothe Fallopian tubes and to prevent serious illness or death. It is also called tubal pregnancy (if the egg implants in the Fallopian tubes) or extra-uterine pregnancy.
  
  
• Cervical Incompetence or Preterm Labor: This is a condition in which the cervix begins to dilate (widen) and efface (thin) before the pregnancy has reached term. Cervical incompetence can be a cause of miscarriage and preterm birth in the second and third trimesters.
  
  
• Preeclampsia/eclampsia: Preeclampsia is a systemic disease that can affect various organ systems. Vascular effects cause the blood pressure to rise in the woman who is pregnant, changes in kidney function, swelling throughout the body, and alterations in blood chemistry and nerve reflexes. If left untreated, preeclampsia can lead to eclampsia, a serious illness that causes seizures, coma, and even death.
  
  
• Multiple Gestation (for example twins, triplets): Preterm birth is twice as likely in twin pregnancies as in singleton pregnancies. The percentage of preterm birth is even greater for triplet pregnancies and quadruplet pregnancies. Preeclampsia also occurs three to five times more frequently with multiple gestation.

EXAMS & TESTS

Several tests may be conducted while a woman is pregnant.

• Pregnancy tests: The woman's urine or blood may be tested.
  
  
  • Women may choose to use a home pregnancy test. This is a urine test kit that can be purchased at a pharmacy or grocery store. The test can indicate whether a woman is pregnant. This type of test is known as a qualitative test. It can only test yes or no for the pregnancy hormone, beta-hCG. If a doctor is considering prescribing a medication that might not be appropriate to take during pregnancy, one of these simple tests may be performed in the office to determine if a woman is pregnant or to make sure she is not pregnant. If the test is performed very early in a pregnancy, the hormone level may still be negative. Some home pregnancy tests might not show positive results until 7-10 days after a missed period.
    
    
  • More sophisticated tests are called quantitative because they measure hCG levels in the blood. This type of testing is completed by drawing blood for testing at a hospital or doctor's office. These levels indicate how far along a woman is in her pregnancy. If levels of hCG do not rise as she progresses in her pregnancy, it could indicate something is wrong (such as an ectopic pregnancy with low levels) or surprising (high levels may indicate twins).
  
  
• Ultrasound: A doctor may use sound waves to examine the internal structures such as the uterus, ovaries, and the embryo or fetus.
  
  
  • Transabdominal ultrasound: A jelly is put on the abdomen, and a hand-held sound-wave wand is moved around to look at the internal structures. The woman's bladder must be full to help transmit the sound waves, so she may be asked to drink two to three glasses of water starting an hour before the test. This method works best later in pregnancy when the fetus is well developed. The doctor may have a scan performed during the first trimester to make sure the pregnancy is in the uterus and not outside it (ectopic pregnancy) and to assess the woman's risk for having a miscarriage. The scan can also tell if more than one fetus is developing. During the remainder of the pregnancy, scans may be used to look for problems, assess the age and development of the fetus, check out its position, and,by 17 weeks,determine the sex. There is no risk to the woman or her developing fetus with ultrasound, and it is not uncomfortable. Ultrasounds help doctors establish the due date. Due dates can now be predicted within two to four days if the ultrasound is performed early enough.
    
    
  • Endovaginal or transvaginal ultrasound: A long, thin, sound-wave wand is covered with a condom and put inside the vagina. This type of ultrasound is usually performed early in pregnancy to make sure that the embryo or fetus is inside the uterus where it belongs. This type of ultrasound also gives more detail, for instance, about the structure of the woman's cervix and the early embryonic anatomy.
    
    
  • Targeted Ultrasound Tests: A targeted or level II ultrasound exam provides a detailed assessment of fetal anatomy. It is recommended if there are concerns for fetal problems based on other tests or history.
    
    
  • Nuchal Fold Translucency Tests: A non-invasive screening for genetic defects. A certified ultrasound technologist measures the fold at the back of the neck. Measurements are then formulated to calculate the risk factor for certain birth defects. It is usually done at 10-14 weeks gestation and offered with a blood test that also screens for birth defects.
    
• Blood tests
  
  
  • Complete Blood Count
    
    
  • Blood type, Rh status, and antibody test
    
    
  • Thyroid test (optional)
    
    
  • Urine culture
    
    
  • Sickle cell screening if of African American heritage
    
    
  • Syphilis tests, HIV test, and tests for hepatitis B
    
    
  • Alpha fetoprotein tests or Quad Screen Test: A Quad Screen looks for four specific substances, Alpha fetoprotein, human chorionic gonadotropin, Estriol (an estrogen), and Inhibin-A (a protein produced by the placenta and ovaries).
    
• Culture tests
  
  
  • Gonorrhea culture (GC) and chlamydia culture
    
    
  • Group B streptococcal test by 35 weeks
    
    
  • Test for bacterial vaginosis (BV), an infection in the vagina,if the woman has vaginal discharge, burning during urination, or itching around the outside of the vagina

Pregnancy Treatment

Normal pregnancy is not an illness and needs no treatment other than standard prenatal care. After the initial visit, during the first six months of pregnancy, you should see your doctor about once per month. Visits should be scheduled every two weeks during the seventh and eight month and weekly during the ninth month. If a woman's pregnancy is difficult or complicated, her treatment can vary from simple bedrest to amniocentesis, which is removal, for testing, of a small amount of amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac surrounding the fetus. Fetal monitoring with a machine, an ultrasound physical assessment, or a stay in the hospital for testing or medication may also be part of the treatment.
Flu shots are recommended for women who are pregnant

Pregnancy Treatment

Normal pregnancy is not an illness and needs no treatment other than standard prenatal care. After the initial visit, during the first six months of pregnancy, you should see your doctor about once per month. Visits should be scheduled every two weeks during the seventh and eight month and weekly during the ninth month. If a woman's pregnancy is difficult or complicated, her treatment can vary from simple bedrest to amniocentesis, which is removal, for testing, of a small amount of amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac surrounding the fetus. Fetal monitoring with a machine, an ultrasound physical assessment, or a stay in the hospital for testing or medication may also be part of the treatment.
Flu shots are recommended for women who are pregnant

STAGES OF PREGNANCY

Pregnancy Treatment

Normal pregnancy is not an illness and needs no treatment other than standard prenatal care. After the initial visit, during the first six months of pregnancy, you should see your doctor about once per month. Visits should be scheduled every two weeks during the seventh and eight month and weekly during the ninth month. If a woman's pregnancy is difficult or complicated, her treatment can vary from simple bedrest to amniocentesis, which is removal, for testing, of a small amount of amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac surrounding the fetus. Fetal monitoring with a machine, an ultrasound physical assessment, or a stay in the hospital for testing or medication may also be part of the treatment.
Flu shots are recommended for women who are pregnant

Source:emedicinehealth.  website